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The Effects of Military and Health Expenditures as Public Goods and Services on Distribution of Income: An Analysis on Selected European Union Countries

Year 2022, Volume: 6 Issue: 2, 402 - 438, 28.05.2022
https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1074976

Abstract

Abstract: Distribution and redistribution policies in the public economics are important devices used to prevent inequality in income distribution in that specific country. As it is well known, the economic growth of countries does not mean the whole thing by itself. In addition to economic growth, ensuring equality in income distribution, which is an indicator of how national income is distributed among households, is also an important macroeconomic indicator. In this context, in this study, the long-term and causality relationship between military and health expenditures with income distribution for the period 2001-2018 of 13 selected European Union member countries has been tried to be examined. In the two-way causality analyzes using the Bootstrap panel Granger causality methodology, it is striking that there is a direct interaction from all three variables to each other for the most of the sample countries. According to the main findings of the study, it has been determined that serious policy differences persist due to the lack of sufficient common implementation or harmonization in fiscal policy, contrary to the monetary policy in EU countries. In particular, some countries try to maintain public services with almost a concession from income distribution, however; the fact that the situation is completely ‘vice versa’ for some countries, is other remarkable result of the study. Again, in the conclusion part of the study, besides the general evaluation, some basic problem-solving suggestions are also presented to help the policy makers to improve the distribution of income in the future.

References

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Kamusal Birer Mal ve Hizmet Olarak Savunma ve Sağlık Harcamalarının Gelir Dağılımı Üzerindeki Etkileri: Seçilmiş Avrupa Birliği Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Analiz

Year 2022, Volume: 6 Issue: 2, 402 - 438, 28.05.2022
https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1074976

Abstract

Öz: Kamu ekonomisinde dağıtım ve yeniden dağıtım politikaları, bir ülkede gelir dağılımındaki eşitsizliği önlemede yararlanılan önemli aygıtlardır. Bilindiği üzere, ülkelerin iktisadi büyümesi tek başına bir anlam ifade etmemektedir. Ekonomik büyümenin yanı sıra milli gelirin hane halkları arasında nasıl dağıldığının bir göstergesi olan gelir dağılımında eşitliğin sağlanması da önemli bir makroekonomik göstergedir. Bu çerçevede, bu çalışmada seçilmiş 13 Avrupa Birliği üyesi ülke 2001-2018 dönemi için tam ve yarı kamusal mal olarak savunma ve sağlık harcamaları ile gelir dağılımı arasındaki uzun vadeli ve nedensellik ilişkisi incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Bootstrap panel Granger nedensellik metodolojisi kullanarak çift yönlü olarak yapılan nedensellik analizlerinde, pek çok örnek ülke için her üç değişkenden de birbirine doğru etkileşim olduğu göze çarpmaktadır. Çalışmanın temel bulgularına göre, AB ülkelerinde para politikasında olanın aksine maliye politikasında yeterli ortak uygulama veya harmonizasyon olmaması nedeniyle ciddi politika farklılıklarının sürdüğü tespit edilmiştir. Özellikle bazı ülkelerin gelir dağılımından adeta bir ödün ile kamu hizmetlerini sürdürmeye çalışması, buna karşın; bazı ülkeler için ise durumun bunun tamamen tersi görünümde olması çalışmaya dair dikkat çekici sonuçlardandır. Yine, çalışmanın sonuç kısmında genel değerlendirme yanında politika yapıcılara gelir dağılımını gelecekte düzeltmeye yardımcı olacağı düşünülen temel çözüm önerileri de sunulmaya çalışılmıştır.

References

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  • Ali, H. E. (2007). Military Expenditures And Inequality: Empirical Evidence From Global Data, Defence and Peace Economics, 18(6), 519-535.
  • Ali, H. E. (2012). Military Expenditures And Inequality In The Middle East And North Africa: A Panel Analysis. Defence and Peace Economics, 23(6), 575-589.
  • Ali, H., & Galbraith, J. (2003). Military Expenditures And Inequality: Empirical Evidence From Global Data, The University of Texas at Austin, UTIP Working Paper, No. 24.
  • Arellano, M. (2003). Panel Data Econometrics, Oxford University Press, New York, 2003.
  • Asteriou, D., & Hall, S. G. (2007). Applied Econometrics: A Modern Approach Using E-views and Microfit, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
  • Balan, F., Torun, M.U., & Kilic, C. (2015). Globalization and Income Inequality in G7: A Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 7(10), 192-203.
  • Balseven, H., & Tugcu, C. T. (2017). Analyzing The Effects Of Fiscal Policy On Income Distribution: A Comparison Between Developed And Developing Countries, International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 7(2): 377.
  • Baltagi, B. H. (2001). Econometric Analysis of Panel Data, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, 2001.
  • Barlow, R., & Vissandjee, B. (1999). Determinants Of National Life Expectancy”, Canadian Journal of Development Studies/Revue Canadienne D'études Du Développement, 20(1), 9-29.
  • Belek İ. (2001). Sosyal Devletin Çöküşü ve Sağlığın Ekonomi Politiği, 2. Baskı, İstanbul: Sorun Yayınları.
  • Bénabou, R. (2000). Unequal Societies: Income Distribution And The Social Contract, American Economic Review, 90, 96–129.
  • Benoit, E. (1973). Defense And Economic Growth In Developing Countries, Lexington Books, Lexington.
  • Benoit, E. (1978). Growth And Defense in Developing Countries, Econ Dev Cult Change, 26(2):271-280.
  • Biscione, A., & Caruso, R. (2021). Military Expenditures And Income Inequality Evidence From A Panel Of Transition Countries (1990-2015), Defence and Peace Economics, 32(1), 46-67.
  • Breitung, J. (2005). A parametric approach to the estimation of cointegration vectors in panel data, Econometric Reviews, 24, 151-173.
  • Breusch, T., & Pagan, A. (1980). The Lagrange Multiplier Test and Its Application to Model Specifications in Econometrics, Reviews of Economics Studies, Vol: 47, 239-253.
  • Chu, H. P., Chang, T., & Sagafi-nejad, T. (2016). Globalization and Economic Growth Revisited: A Bootstrap Panel Causality Test. Contemporary Economic and Management Studies in Asia and Africa, Cyrus Chronicle Journal, May 2016, 1(1): 30-44.
  • D’Agostino, G., Pieroni, L., & Scarlato, M. (2020). Social Transfers And Income Inequality In OECD Countries, Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 52, 313-327.
  • Destek, M.A., & Okumus, I. (2016). Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in Brics and Mist Countries: Evidence from Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis, South-Eastern Europe Journal of Economics, Association of Economic Universities of South and Eastern Europe and the Black Sea Region, 14(2), 175-186.
  • Dunne, J. P., Smith, R. P., & Willenbockel, D. (2005). Models Of Military Expenditure And Growth: A Critical Review, Defence And Peace Economics, 16(6): 449-461.
  • Durusu-Ciftci, D., Soytas, U., & Nazlioglu, S. (2020). Financial development and energy consumption in emerging markets: Smooth structural shifts and causal linkages, Energy Economics, Elsevier, 87(C).
  • Dünya Bankası (2021). WDI, http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators
  • Elveren, A. Y. (2012). Military Spending And Income Inequality: Evidence On Cointegration And Causality For Turkey, 1963–2007, Defence and Peace Economics, 23(3), 289-301.
  • Esener, C., Granville, B., & Matousek, R. (2022). Choosing the Optimal Tool for Fiscal Adjustment or Living under Fiscal Constraints: Panel Evidence from Selected OECD Countries, Economic Research Guardian, Weissberg Publishing, 12(1), 2-29.
  • Esener, S. Ç. (2019a). Mali Özerklik ve Mali Tevzin Açısından Yerel Yönetim Vergi Gelirlerinin Kişi Başı Gelir ve Ekonomik Büyüme ile Karşılıklı Nedensellik İlişkisi: Seçilmiş OECD Üyesi Ülkelerde Mali Yerelleşme Üzerine Bazı Çıkarımlar, Akademik Araştırmalar ve Çalışmalar Dergisi, 11 (20), 1-28.
  • Esener, S. C. (2019b). Gelişmiş ve Gelişmekte Olan Ülkelerde İktisadi Büyüme, Kamu Gelirleri ve Harcamalarının Çift Yönlü Nedenselliğine Dair Ampirik Bir Analiz (A Two-Way Empirical Investigation on Economic Growth, Public Revenue and Expenditure for Developed and Developing Countries), Business and Economics Research Journal, Uludag University, 10(5), 1051-1070.
  • Eurostat (2021). European Commission Database, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database
  • Fuchs, V. R. (1974). Some Economic Aspects Of Mortality In Developed Countries, In The Economics Of Health And Medical Care, 174-201, London: Palgrave Macmillan,.
  • Graham, J. C., & Mueller, D. (2019). Military Expenditures and Income Inequality among a Panel of OECD Countries in the Post-Cold War Era, 1990–2007, Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 25(1), 2018-16.
  • Granger, C. W. J. (1969). Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods, Econometrica, 37(3), 424-438.
  • Granger, C. W. J. (2003). Some aspects of causal relationships, Journal of Econometrics, 112, 69-71.
  • Greene, W. H. (2003). Econometric Analysis, Prentice Hall, London, 5th Edition, 2003.
  • Greenwood, J., & Jovanovic, B. (1990). Financial Development Growth And The Distribution Of Income, J Polit Econ, 98(5 Part 1):1076-1107.
  • Hacker, R. S., & Hatemi-j, A. (2006). Tests for causality between integrated variables using asymptotic and bootstrap distributions: theory and application, Applied Economics, 38(13), 1489-1500.
  • Hindriks, J., & Myles, G. D. (2006). Intermediate Public Economics, Vol 1 MIT PressBooks.
  • Holzner, M. (2010). Inequality, Growth And Public Spending In Central, East And Southeast Europe, WIIW Working Paper, No. 71.
  • Huang, C. (2013). Corruption and Income Inequality in Asian Countries: Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Test, Journal for Economic Forecasting, Institute for Economic Forecasting, 16(4), 161-170, December.
  • Hurlin, C. (2008). Testing for Granger Non-Causality in Heterogeneous Panels, Mimeo. Department of Economics: University of Orleans.
  • Kar, M., Nazlıoğlu, Ş., & Ağır, H. (2011). Financial Development and Economic Growth Nexus in the MENA Countries: Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis, Economic Modelling, 28(1-2): 685-693.
  • Kawachi, I. (2000). Income Inequality And Health, In: Social Epidemiology, Berkman LF, Kawachi I, eds. 76–94, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Kónya, L. (2006). Exports and Growth: Granger causality analysis on OECD countries with a panel data approach, Economic Modelling, vol. 23(6): 978-992.
  • Korkmaz, Ö. (2019). The relationship between housing prices and inflation rate in Turkey: Evidence from panel Konya causality test, International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, 13(3), 427-452. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHMA-05-2019-0051.
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Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Selçuk Çağrı Esener 0000-0002-5722-9549

Ahmet Emre Biber 0000-0001-5251-3156

Publication Date May 28, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 6 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Esener, S. Ç., & Biber, A. E. (2022). Kamusal Birer Mal ve Hizmet Olarak Savunma ve Sağlık Harcamalarının Gelir Dağılımı Üzerindeki Etkileri: Seçilmiş Avrupa Birliği Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Analiz. Fiscaoeconomia, 6(2), 402-438. https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1074976

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